Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Its name is derived from the Greek, (chloros "green") and (phyllon "leaf"). Chlorophyll absorbs light most strongly in the blue and red but poorly in the green portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, hence the green colour of chlorophyll-containing tissues such as plant leaves.

Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis

Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis, which allows plants to obtain energy from light.

Chlorophyll molecules are specifically arranged in and around pigment protein complexes called photosystems which are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. In these complexes, chlorophyll serves two primary functions. The function of the vast majority of chlorophyll (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light and transfer that light energy by resonance energy transfer to a specific chlorophyll pair in the reaction center of the photosystems. Because of chlorophyll’s selectivity regarding the wavelength of light it absorbs, areas of a leaf containing the molecule will appear green.

Chlorophyll itself is bound to proteins and can transfer the absorbed energy in the required direction. Protochlorophyllide, differently, mostly occur in the free form and under light conditions act as photosensitizer, forming highly toxic free radicals. Hence plants need an efficient mechanism of regulating the amount of chlorophyll precursor. In angiosperms, this is done at the step of aminolevulinic acid (ALA), one of the intermediate compounds in the biosynthesis pathway.

Culinary Use

Chefs use chlorophyll to colour a variety of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and absinthe. Chlorophyll is not soluble in water and is first mixed with a small quantity of oil to obtain the desired result.


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Beta-Carotene

Beta-Carotene belongs to a group of plant compounds called carotenoids. These are the pigments that provide the yellow, orange, and red coloration in fruits and vegetables. Foods containing high amounts of beta-carotene are green leafy vegetables, carrots, sweet potatoes, squash, spinach, apricots, peaches, cantaloupe, and green, yellow, and red peppers. Beta-carotene is the most abundant carotenoid in human foods and is generally thought to be the most important carotenoid for humans. Enzymes in the intestines also convert beta-carotene to vitamin A whenever it is needed.

A red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits. As a carotene with beta-rings at both ends, it is the most common form of carotene. It is a precursor (inactive form) of vitamin A. Beta-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate.

Pro-Vitamin A Activity

Plant carotenoids are the primary dietary source of pro-vitamin A worldwide, with Beta-Carotene as the most well-known pro-vitamin A carotenoid. Others inlcude Beta-Carotene and Beta-Cryptoxanthin. Carotenoids are absorbed into the small intestine by passive diffusion. One molecule of Beta-carotene can be cleaved by a specific intestinal enzyme into two molecules of vitamin A.

Absorption efficiency is estimated to be between 9-22%. The absorption and conversion of carotenoids may depend on the form that the ?-carotene is in (cooked vs. raw vegetables, in a supplement), intake of fats and oils at the same time, and the current levels of vitamin A and Beta-Carotene.

Researchers list the following factors that determine the pro-vitamin A activity of carotenoids:

• Species of carotenoid
• Molecular linkage
• Amount in the meal
• Matrix properties
• Effectors
• Nutrient status
• Genetics
• Host specificity
• Interactions between factors


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Total Carotenoids

Total Carotenoids refers to all the pigments. There are over 600 known carotenoids; they are split into two classes, xanthophylls (which contain oxygen) and carotenes (which are purely hydrocarbons, and contain no oxygen). Carotenoids in general absorb blue light. They serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis, and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage. In humans, four carotenoids (beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, gamma-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin) have vitamin A activity (meaning they can be converted to retinal), and these and other carotenoids can also act as antioxidants. The carotenoid pigments are the main factors determining the color of orange juice and also have pro-vitamin A activity. Carotenoids give the reds and yellows in fall leaves as well as food natural products.

The most common carotenoids include lycopene and the vitamin A precursor Beta-Carotene. They are fat soluble and antioxidants. There are xanthophylls and many carotenes , actually over 600 in total.Carotenoid is a chemical on dandelions and other flowers and shrubbery. Chlorophyll is what causes plants and trees to be green.


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Phycocyanin

Phycocyanin is a pigment from the light-harvesting phycobiliprotein family, along with allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin. It is an accessory pigment to chlorophyll. All phycobiliproteins are water soluble and therefore cannot exist within the membrane like carotenoids, but aggregate forming clusters that adhere to the membrane called phycobilisomes. Phycocyanin absorbs orange and red light, particularly near 620 nm (depending on which specific type it is), and emits fluorescence at about 650 nm (also depending on which type it is). Allophycocyanin absorbs and emits at longer wavelengths than Phycocyanin C or Phycocyanin R. Phycocyanins are found in Cyanobacteria (previously called blue-green algae). Phycobiliproteins have fluorescent properties that are used in immunoassay kits. Phycocyanin is from the Greek phyco meaning “algae” and cyanin is from the English word “cyan", which is derived from the Greek “kyanos" and means blue-green. The product phycocyanin, produced by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Spirulina, is used in the food and beverage industry as a natural coloring agent 'Lina Blue' and is found in sweets and ice cream.


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